The American Civil War Causes and Outcomes

Introduction The American Civil War stands out as the most devastating conflict ever to have been waged on American soil. In this deadly war, the Northern States went into battle against the Southern States for the sake of preserving the unity of the Union of States. The Southern States had threatened to break apart from the union and establish their own independent states.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The American Civil War Causes and Outcomes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This threat was acted upon when eleven Southern States seceded from the Union in 1860 and declared themselves independent. The Northern States, under the Lincoln Administrations, therefore reacted by taking up arms to go into battle against the Southern rebels. The American Civil War therefore began in 1861 and lasted for the next 4 years during which hundreds of thousands of lives were lost. This war had a lasting impact on the destiny of the USA and Americans continue to commemorate the events of the Civil War through an array of public events inducing reenactments. This paper will set out to describe the American Civil War with focus being given to the causes of the conflict and the main outcomes of the war. The paper will also highlight some of the reasons why the Union forces emerged victorious in this historical war. Causes of the Civil War The election of the strong Republican, Abraham Lincoln as the US president triggered the start of the Civil War. The seceding states explicitly stated that Lincoln’s election was the reason why they decided to pull out of the Union at that moment. During his rise to prominence, Lincoln had articulated a firm antislavery position (Ford 91). Lincoln held the opinion that the phrase â€Å"all men are created equal† uttered by the founding fathers applied to both White and Black Americans. His convictions and ideals led him to make a pledge that he would stop th e westward expansion of slavery that the Southerners were lobbying for and actively financing. Lincoln’s presidency marked a radical break with the past and it was seen as a break from the domination of the Slaveholders in State affairs. His election into the highest office in the land was therefore seen as a threat by the Southerners who were adamant in their will to preserve slavery and the norms of the white society dependent upon that institution. Lincoln’s inauguration as president was quickly followed by the secession of seven southern states and the formation of a Union of Confederate States of America. Within three months, four more states had joined the confederacy making the total number of seceding state eleven. The issue of the amount of power held by the States and how much was vested in the Federal government served as a primary cause of the Civil War. The Confederacy wanted power the greater amount of power to lie with the states since according to them, the United Colonies â€Å"†are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States† (Swindler 166).Advertising Looking for report on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, the Union supported a strong central government that would have more power than the constituent states. This division led to the Southern States moving towards secession since they were of the opinion that the individual states should be able to act independently on issues that affected them. The expansionist politics endorsed by the United States contributed to the breakout of the Civil War. Americans were engaged in an endeavor to expand further into the West, conquering territory until they reached the Pacific Ocean. Disagreements arose over what policies would be applied to the new territories. While the Northerners were interested in abolishing slavery in the new territory, the Southerners were keen to ensure that t his institution was preserved in the new lands. In an attempt to come up with a solution to the issue, politicians invented the Henry Clay Compromise of 1850. This compromise comprised of resolutions that would ensure that the interests of the North and the South were protected in the expansion. Ford observes that while these resolutions were able to strike a balance between the free and slave states for a while, the South did not fully honor the resolutions (255). Southern States continued to push for slavery in the new states and eventually succeeded, leading to the outbreak of the civil war. The issue of slavery was very divisive since the societies in the northern and southern states had different economic and social structures. Due to the economic and cultural background of the Northerners, this population took a firm stand against slavery. Renowned politicians from the North such as Abraham Lincoln called made their anti-slavery stand known and opposed expansion of slavery int o the new lands in the West. Southern leaders were pro-slavery and according to them, this institution was crucial to the economic well-being of the South. Slave ownership was â€Å"the cornerstone of Southern wealth, security, and well being† and protecting the slavery institution was a necessary step to guard the material interests of the Confederate whites. As such, the Confederate soldiers entered military service to defend the supremacy of white persons and property (Gallagher and Engle 311). On the other hand, the Union side saw the abolition of slavery as key to preserving the union of the State. Outcomes of the Civil War The most important outcome of the Civil War is that it led to a decisive victory by the Union Forces. With the defeat of the secessionists, the reunification of the United States under the Federal Constitution was achieved. The Confederacy idea was abandoned as the Southerners had to come back to the Union since they had been defeated in the war.Adver tising We will write a custom report sample on The American Civil War Causes and Outcomes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As the victorious side, the Union was able to impose its vision of the country. A stronger union of the states was established and the states became â€Å"a United States† (Gallagher and Engle 311). The post Civil War government was highly centralized and it wielded great power. The federal government established its dominance over the states and it has continued to do so ever since. The war led to many deaths and casualties as soldiers and civilians made sacrifices for their sides. By the end of the war, the Confederacy had incurred a loss of more than 260,000 soldiers while the Union suffered from a loss of over 360,000 Federal soldiers. The higher number of Union soldiers’ deaths, was caused by the fact that the Union forces had to engage in the attacking while the Confederate forces simply d efended their territory. Ford reveals that the high number of troop deaths in the war was because the objective of the war was to weaken or destroy the opposing army and not to gain any geographical territory (132). The War imposed a huge financial burden on the country as resources had to be dedicated to war efforts by both sides. The Union dedicated its industrial efforts to aiding the war while the south also channeled money to the war efforts. Over the course of its existence, the war is estimated to have cost in excess of $20 billion. Ford notes that this figure was 30 times larger than the federal government’s budget in the year before the war (34). While both sides suffered from financial strain because of the war, the Southern economy received the greater damages. Before the war, the North already boasted of a stronger economy and a better-developed infrastructure. The war was more damaging to the South since the North had a larger and better-equipped army. The agricu lturally based economy of the South was devastated as Northern troops destroyed plantations during the war. Historians document that the devastation of the war on the Confederacy side was so great that it took six decades for the Southern states to get back to their pre-Civil War agricultural productivity (Woodworth 563). The War led to the disruption of the lives of citizens in the North and the South. While most of the war was waged by soldiers against their opponent soldiers, civilians sometimes fell victim of attacks. In some cases, unruly troops set fire upon plantations leading to great loss of property and even lives.Advertising Looking for report on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The lack of Federal protection to the people of the seceding states in the south made civilians vulnerable to opportunistic attacks from thugs. Troops often burned down buildings therefore destroying towns that they had conquered. The destruction of the war did not end with the official surrender of the Southern states. Many insurrections followed the defeat of the confederacy as rebels continued to wage war against the Northern States and generally devastate community life. The Civil War led to the official abolition of slavery in the United States. In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves who were in the areas currently under Confederate military control. Through the emancipation policies, Lincoln effectively linked the preservation of the Union with the abolition of slavery. When the war ended in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified therefore ensuring that the American Constitution would guarantee the freedom of all slaves (Wo odworth 568). The Southerners who had fought to preserve the slavery institution were embittered by this outcome since they had to set their slaves free. In spite of the black population achieving their freedom because of the war, the white society continued to prevent them from exploiting its benefits fully (Woodworth 568) The war led to the political dominance of Northern Republicans. Before the war, the Southerners had had the greatest influence in American politics. During the War, the Confederate states were out of the Union and this allowed the Northerners to pass a number of acts in Congress that had been considered before the war but were blocked by Southern economic and political interests (Woodworth 560). Without the Southerners, the Northern politicians were able to implement acts that promoted western expansion and the interest of the Northerners. Why the Union Won The states making up the Union were more industrialized and their army had military superiority to the less industrialized confederacy. Due to the higher level of industrialization, the North was able to produce weapons more efficiently that the South. Historians document that the north was able to purchase over 1.4 million artillery rounds and 260 million small-arms cartridges from Northern munitions makers in a year while the Confederacy produced only 150 million small-arms cartridges for the entire duration of the war (Gallagher and Engle 311). The Union had over 700 naval vessels engaged in the war efforts. Most of these vessels were ironclad, making them formidable machines of naval warfare. In contrast to this, the Confederacy had almost none, making it impossible for the South to wage any naval attack against the North. This overwhelming advantage in weaponry by the Northern army gave them a significant advantage over the Confederacy and contributed to their ultimate victory. The naval blockade by the Union contributed to the victory of the North. As an economy based on agricultur al products, the South was heavily reliant on the foreign exchange earned by exporting their products through the Atlantic and the Gulf Coast. The South was also dependent on goods from outside since the region was not as industrialized as the North or other European countries. During the Civil War, President Lincoln called for a blockade that was aimed at preventing the South from receiving supplies and arms. Gallagher and Engle state that this ever-tightening blockade was very effective and by 1865, it had succeeded in choking off imports to the Confederacy almost completely (311). As a result, the southern economy was crippled since ship operators were unwilling to have their ships confiscated by the Union Forces or destroyed. With little activity at the Southern ports, the Southern armies experienced a shortage of suppliers and ammunition as the war carried on. The Union was able to sustain its economic activities even during the duration of the war. The industrial capability of the Northern states ensured that they exhibited growth even during the war. These states were able to sell off surplus industrial products overseas and earn foreign currency (Ford 56). In contrast to this, the South experienced economic stagnation or even deteriorated during the period of the war. The economic realities of the South led to high inflation rates and a general negative attitude towards the war by southerners. The population of the warring parties also had some impact on the outcome of the war. Specifically, the Union had a larger population than the Confederacy. Some scholars argue that the Union won because of its overwhelming numbers. This argument is supported by the fact that while the Confederacy mustered close to 900,000 soldiers, the North was able to employ over two million soldiers (Gallagher and Engle 311). The impact that great human and military resources had on the outcomes of the war was acknowledged by the Confederate Leader General Robert E. Lee who de clared in his farewell address that â€Å"the Confederate Army has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers of resources† (Gallagher and Engle 311). By harnessing the vast resources that the North boasted, the political and military leaders of the Union were able to achieve the military might necessary to win the war. Conclusion This paper set out to provide a detailed discussion of the Civil War between the American North and South. It begun by nothing that the election of Abraham Lincoln triggered the secession that led to an outbreak of the war. Both sides were determined to win the war and due to this resolve, the war dragged on from 1861 to 1865. The war resulted in the victory of the Union and the abolition of slavery in the US. The paper has highlighted that the overwhelming resources in population, industrialization, and infrastructure, strong leadership and a great commitment to the war enabled the Union to win the war. Works Cited Ford, Lacy. A Companion to t he Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: John Wiley Sons, 2011. Print. Gallagher, Gary, and D. Engle. The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War, Colorado: Osprey Publishing, 2003. Print. Swindler, Walsh. â€Å"Our First Constitution: The Articles of Confederation.† ABA Journal 67.1(1981): 166-169. Print. Woodworth, Steven. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research, NY: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. Print. This report on The American Civil War Causes and Outcomes was written and submitted by user Wayne L. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Reaction Attachment Disorder - SmartCustomWriting.com Samples

Reaction Attachment Disorder - SmartCustomWriting.com Reaction Attachment DisorderAbstract The definition of reactive attachment disorder has been provided in this paper followed by a brief introduction to the symptoms of the disorder. The positive and negative outcomes and their impact on relationships has been put forward. The causes of the reactive attachment disorder amongst infants and adults have been tackled. Finally, the various treatment strategies as addressed by empirical research have concluded the paper. Introduction This is a severe uncommon disorder that affects children. The disorder is characterized by poor or inappropriate social interactions or excessive interactions depicted by children even with strangers. In most cases the child appears to be disturbed in terms of making the normal social interactions from all contexts. During early childhood, it is expected that the child develops attachments to the caregiver with the normal socialization models. The care giver in this case could even be the mother or any other person charged with the responsibility of taking care of the child. However with the disorder such an attachment is not achieved because of a number of factors ranging from child abuse, neglect, genetic, environment or even separation from the child in the early stages of development. (Cappelletty, Brown,Shumate,2005). Children with Reaction Attachment Disorder (RAD) have social interaction models that appear to be grossly disturbed and can be the main cause of future behavior problems later on in life. The symptoms of the disorder vary from behavior problems to socialization problems as depicted by researchers. (Fairchild, 2006). Symptoms Behavior problems Children with RAD are clearly noticed with aggressive and oppositional behaviors at their young age.Most research findings have demonstrated that  Ã‚   RAD children are not affectionate to their parents and they lack eye contact on parents. Such children can be indiscriminately attracted to strangers unlike in the normal cases. They also tend to be very destructive on their self and other kids. For instance they are always in trouble and prone to accidents than other children. In most cases, they would want to be given more attention than anybody else.   They are also prone to vices such as stealing and lying. Such can tell lies even for the obvious things. Evidence from empirical studies also indicate that RAD children often like asking non sense and annoying questions to their friends and their care takers. In terms of knowledge and learning, researchers have indicated that the children normally lag behind in language and other cognitive skills. In cases where the children have been left with pets and other animals, they have tended to display a cruel behavior towards the animals. From empirical studies, children with RAD display a variety of symptoms that are unusual and clearly reflect their disturbed attachments. (Shaw Paez,2007). Negative outcomes of the disorder Undesirable behaviors are part and parcel of children who have Reaction Attachment Disorder. In some cases the children have depicted erratic mood swings. The unpredictable behavior can be in the form of clinging to hanging and swearing. In studies where the children with the disorder have been assessed, the results have shown that the children stated concerns about being mad and crazy. In some cases, psychiatric analysis has pointed pointed out that the child here’s a voice instructing to do a particular undesirable activity. Research has also shown evidence of children not showing affection to their parents as a result of the disorder. Bad behaviors such as stealing unnecessarily and lying can be quite a common thing amongst the children with the disorder. (Schechter Willheim,2009). Delayed social and cognitive development. Children with Reaction Attachment Disorder can experience delayed development in their cognitive abilities. In most cases the children find difficulties and are completely unable to accomplish cognitive tasks assigned to them in school or by the caregivers. Delayed cognitive development can be indicated in such cases with mild mental retardation. In terms of social development affected children can depict immature socialization and inappropriate behaviors. The behavior of the children can also be indiscriminate social interaction with lack of abilities to regulate emotions such as anger. The children can also show lack of attention and concentration while in the company of caregivers and other children. Language deficiency is also associated with the children with the disorder. Affected children can experience difficulties in receptive and expressive skills. The child may be unable to undertake comprehension and articulation exercises. (Schwartz, DavisAndrew,2006). Positive outcomes The interruptive and controlling behavior of children with Reaction Attachment Disorder can be made useful in terms of leadership. This is in light of the fact that they have tendencies of believing that they are more powerful than the rest. The children therefore do not find it comfortable to be led or influenced by others. In their ability to have control over what others are doing, RAD children can end up being chosen as young leaders. This is also achieved positively because they are able to make others focus on what they do. By this they easily manage to influence and lead others. In future such an   ability can grow and develop into future leaders in business and in the corporate world. Growing up and developing independently is a positive outcomes of RAD. In most cases children develop attachment to their parents at a very tender age. Most of them are unable to live independently without the affection from the parents.   With or without parents, RAD children would still continue living and achieve education and other important goals. The reduced attachment and dependency on parents should therefore be viewed as a strength because the children cannot break down in case something happened to the care givers. In future such children could also develop into powerful people in the society who are self driven and highly motivated. A good historical example was provided by Adolf Hitler who suffered the disorder in his early childhood. The ability of the RAD children to depend on themselves is a very important positive outcome. This is because they can easily confront the challenges that come in their way without involving other children or care givers.   This can make such children develop talents and other skills that can benefit them in their future lives. For instance independent thought and decision making can be greatly developed in such children more than their counterparts who are so much dependent on caregivers and colleagues. Causes of Reaction Attachment Disorder (RAD). Child abuse Abuse has become a common threat amongst young children and it has been blamed by most researchers to be a cause of this severe disorder. Abuse can be physical, emotional and even sexual. Psychologists argue that when the child is subjected to abuse in any form, the risk of developing an attachment disorder is very high. In most cases, child who have been subjected to abuse by their caregivers, siblings or parents often are impulsive towards the people who caused the problem. Later own this can be transferred to other people hence a reaction attachment disorder. (Fairchild, 2006). Neglect In normal situations, it is expected that a parent should take care of the child to ensure that all the needs are met as the child undergoes growth and development. Child neglect is a common problem among teenage mothers and other cases. Research has indicated that children who have been neglected lack the love and affection of parents or primary care givers. The children struggle on their own and they fail to develop the necessary attachment to their parents. In such cases , the children are forced to socialize on their own and this can greatly interfere with their different aspects of development. In some cases, the symptoms of the disorder have been noticed in children who have been separated from the primary care givers. If the mother was the source of primary care for the child when the mother is separated from the child due to factors such as death or any other separation, the child might fail to initiate attachments with other people. This has been mentioned by sociologists and they argue that it is a common case during early adolescence. Foster parents who have adopted children who have pasts full of abuse and neglect have experienced behaviors in the children that are associated with the disorder. The most common behavior in the aggressive behavior that has been witnessed by most of the foster parents. (Guttmann-Steinmetz Crowell, 2006). Genetic constitution of the infant. The genetic constitution of the child can also predispose the child to RAD. This is still under the aspects of poor maternal care and its impact on the child’s development. Infants are normally born with different genetic profiles some which can result in the attachment and behavior disorders. There is a strong growing body of evidence from animal and clinical studies that suggests that the infant’s genetic constitution is very important in the reaction towards pathogenic environments. In the genetic makeup of the child , there are genes that are in charge or releasing the neuronal hormones that shape the child’s attachments to the mother or primary care giver. From this point of view, it is more likely that some children become susceptible to disturbed attachment depending on the nature of their genes. In light of this issue, several genes have been cited to have an effect on attachment and detachment of the child. For instance vasopressin and serotoninergic hav e been implicated in studies of attachment disorders. (Hardy, 2007) Maternal Ambivalence This involves the various reactions and processes the expectant mothers go through which might affect the developing child. It is vital to mention that in some communities, cultures can exert a lot of pressure on the mother. The way the mother responds to the cultural pressures determines the risk to attachment disorders. In some cases the mother is supposed to deal with stressful situations such as uncooperative husbands or separation issues and they all affect the relationship with the child. In cases where mothers have responded with mixed reactions on the child chances of forming stronger ties with the child even after birth become slim hence making the child to develop RAD symptoms. (Hardy, 2007) Inheritance A number of   studies have pointed out the role played by poor motherhood in the occurrence of RAD in infants. It is vital to mention that emotional and cognitive aspects of the mother can predispose the child to the attachment disorder. There are studies which have been done on primate mothers have indicated that mothers have the potential of influencing the future behavior of their children in relation to the disorder. Specifically they have concluded that nonhuman mothers who were abused at infant stage are more likely to abuse their children hence leading to the development of the disorder in their off springs. This was observed in both the children raised by their biological mothers as well as those raised by their non biological mothers. Maternal anxiety and other emotions in relation to bad behavior of the child has also been indicated by research to affect the child. Children who have behavior problems and are difficult to manage can trigger anxiety amongst mothers and if i t is not handled carefully, it can result in the disturbed attachment in the infants of 4 years. The goodness of fit in the mothers environment has also been associated with triggering factors of the disorder. Sociologists argue that the mother has to be well equipped with the right attitudes and skills that can control the external environment of the child. This is applicable to infants who are unresponsive and quiet and also those who are irritable and repulsive. With such a control, the mother is able to reduce the risk of the environment in triggering symptoms of the disorder. (Hardy, 2007) Treatment/Therapy Therapy and management of reaction attachment disorder requires a lot of patience from the people involved. Immediate success upon commencement of the therapy should not be anticipated. Infants and adolescents are often oppositional and aggressive and can test the limits of external controls and rules. The therapists must therefore be prepared for little appreciation from the patients while at the same time expects the negative feedback in terms of behavior of the patients. (Hoffman,   Marvin, Cooper Powell, 2006). Empirical studies have identified various treatments for reactive attachment disorder. One of the most common strategy has been psychotherapy and has taken different dimensions while utilizing theories such as that of attachment. Becker-Weidman has articulated the Dyadic development psychotherapy. The researcher argues that symptoms of the disorder have declined to a great extent in cases where the method has been applied effectively. The therapy is based on the attachment theory and it is founded on the premise that the current situation of the child is the most essential in reducing the symptoms while at the same time the experiences of the child should be looked into. Building a relationship with the child is a key aspect of this treatment. The proponent argues that it is through the knowledge of the child’s background and experiences that workable relationships can be built with the care giver. In an environment where there is safety of the child, the therapist models heal thy attachment modes. The RAD child is given a chance to re-experience the traumatic situations and in the event new feelings are triggered and expressed. (Becker-Weidman, 2006). Cycle of security therapy This is a strategy that uses the secure and non secure attachment designs. The process is led by a therapist who addresses the children and the care givers. One of the goals of the therapy is to develop a secure working environment between the children and the caregiver. The goal then shifts to the attention and sensitivity and responsibility that looks into the attachment needs of the child. The ability to recognize the verbal and non-verbal cues is enhanced by the methods. (Hoffman, Marvin, Cooper Powell, 2006). Another therapy that has been put forward through empirical research is known a eye desensitization and reprocessing. Such a therapy in founded on the assumption that traumatic episodes are trapped rather than processed by the brain. Each and every aspect of the negative experiences continue to be reactivated every now and then and they have an impact on the victim of the disorder. Children who suffered abuse and neglect continue to visualize these bad experiences and it interferes with their abilities to form relationships with their caregivers. This therapy has the potential of diminishing the unfortunate experiences of abuse and neglect and replaces them with positive feelings such as those of happiness and hope. The RAD infants are therefore able to continue with a normal life that is full of excitement and positive attitude towards others hence attachments. (Newman, 2007). Medications for other conditions that might be affecting the child with RAD has also shown positive results according to empirical research. Studies have continued to point that conditions such as anxiety and depression might be very influential towards the behavior of adolescents. In cases where these conditions have been kept at bay, reactive attachment disorder symptoms have reduced tremendously. Counseling Individual psychological counseling can be of great help to children suffering from the attachment disorder. In this case, the therapist who can be the parent or care giver should seek psychological counseling on how to bring back attachment relations with the affected child.   The caretaker can also attend the counseling sessions with the affected child for the psychologists to have a first- hand experience with the patient. Empirical studies have shown that RAD children who are given medicine by the psychologists would show diminishing behavior problems with application of therapy. In these studies the patients were enrolled in a three year program. During the three years counseling was applied and it resulted in positive results with changed behavior in the children. Specifically the patients developed attachments with their adopted mothers and they showed a diminishing trend in the oppositional and aggressive behavior. (Haggard Hazan, 2006). Play therapy This form of therapy makes use of a number of important aspects in forming attachments between the caregiver and the child. The balance of structure, nurturance and play are key in this case in the formation of attachments. As recorded by Weir (2007), modifying theraplay is a crucial step towards helping the child with attachment problems. The approach is applicable to children of upto 12 years. The sessions are designed to last for one hour per week and should last between 10 to 20 weeks. The facets that are key towards better attachments include structure, challenge, stimulation and nurturing as mentioned by Pzybylo (2002). Structure in theraplay refers to the groundwork in which times rules are set and reviewed for the sake of establishing the structure. The challenge pertains to the scenario where the participation of parents and children is required whether they like it or not. Participation of these two important stakeholders ensures that the required tasks are completed as set to realize the objectives. Engagement has to be undertaken in the therapy so as to attract the children and ensure they are in the process of changing their behavior. Nurturing has been considered to be a very important aspect of play therapy by the research. It is through nurturing that the desirable bonds are established between the care giver and the child. A sense of security is very essential for the child. Empirical research had provided evidence that affirms that the more secure the environment formed by the caregiver, the stronger the attachments that are established between the child and the care giver. (Newman, 2007). Conclusion. Reactive attachment disorder manifests itself in different behavior problems and has an impact on the relationships between infants and their care givers. It is vital to understand the symptoms of the disorder before choosing the appropriate therapy. Empirical research has shown the success that has been achieved by various treatment methods   that have been discussed in the paper. References Becker?Weidman, P. A. (2006). Treatment for children with trauma attachment disorders:   Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapies. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal , 23 (2), 147?171. Cappelletty, G. G., Brown, M. M., Shumate, S. E. (2005). Correlates of the Randolph   Attachment Disorder Questionnaire (RADQ) in a sample of children in foster placement. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal , 22 (1), 71?84. Fairchild, S. R. (2006). Understanding attachment: Reliability and validity of selected attachment measures for preschoolers and children. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal , 235?261. Guttmann-Steinmetz S, Crowell JA (2006). "Attachment and externalizing disorders: a developmental psychopathology perspective". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 45 (4): 440–51. Hardy, L. T. (2007). Attachment theory and reactive attachment disorder: Theoretical perspectives and treatment implications. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 27?39. Hoffman, K. T., Marvin, R. S., Cooper, G., Powell, B. (2006). Changing toddlers' and preschoolers' attachment classifications: The Circle of Security intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 1017?1026. Haugaard, J, J.; Hazan, Cindy.(2006).Recognizing and Treating Uncommon Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children and Adolescents Who Have Been Severely Maltreated: Reactive Attachment Disorder. Child Maltreatment, Vol 9(2), May 2007. pp. 154-160. Mukaddes, N Motavalli; Kaynak, F. Nimet; Kinali, Gulsevim.(2005). Psychoeducational Treatment of Children with Autism and Reactive Attachment Disorder. Autism The International Journal of Research and Practice, v8 n1 p101-109 Mar 2005. Newman L, Mares S (2007). "Recent advances in the theories of and interventions with attachment disorders". Curr Opin Psychiatry 20 (4): 343–8 Schwartz, Eric; Davis, Andrew S.. (2006). Reactive attachment disorder: Implications for school readiness and school functioning.Psychology in the Schools, Apr2006, Vol. 43 Issue 4, p471-479, 9p; DOI: 10.1002/pits.20161. Shaw, S. R., Paez, D. (2007). Reactive attachment disorder: Recognition, action, and considerations for school social workers. Children and Schools , 69?74. Schechter DS, Willheim E (2009). Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Issue. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 18(3), 665-687. Weir, P. K. (2007). Using integrative play therapy with adoptive families to treat reactive attachmentdisorder: A case study. Journal of Family Psychotherapy , 18 (4), 1?16.

French Pronunciation of the Double L

French Pronunciation of the Double L In French, the double L is sometimes pronounced like an L  and other times like a Y. How do you know when to pronounce it each way? This lesson explains the general rules and the inevitable exceptions. Rules for Pronouncing LL As a general rule, the double L after A, E, O, U, and Y is pronounced like an L: une balle, elle, mollement, une idylle, etc. If there are exceptions to this, Ive never found them. In words with I followed by LL, the rules are a bit more complicated. The double L is always pronounced like a Y in letter combinations with vowel ILL: aill (e.g., taille)eill (oreille)euill (feuille)Å“ill (Å“illet)ouill (grenouille)ueill (cueillir)uill (juillet) And LL is pronounced like a Y in words such as fille, la Bastille, Millau, and chantilly. However, there  are also many words in which the double L is pronounced like an L (follow links to hear the words pronounced). This is the complete list: un bacille  - germ, bacillusbillevesà ©es - nonsenseun billion - trillioncapillaire - capillaryun codicille - codicildistiller - to distillune fibrille - small fiber (fibrillaire, fibrillation)*un krill - krillLille - town in northern Francelilliputien - Liliputianmille - thousand (un millà ©nium, millier, etc.)un mille - mile (le millage)milli- (prefix)un milliard - billion (un milliardaire, le milliardià ¨me, etc.)un million - million (un millionaire, le millionià ¨me, etc.)osciller - to oscillate, swingun/e pupille* - ward of the stateune pupille* - pupilune scille - scillaune spongille - spongillatranquille - calm, tranquilun verticille - verticilun vexille - vexillumune ville - town (une villa, un village, etc.)une zorille - zorilla The (parentheses) indicate derivations which are also pronounced like an L. *These words may be pronounced either way.

Pivot Column Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pivot Column - Assignment Example The column (r) becomes an r-nth column. In a tableau the pivot column is the column that has the most negative integer. If there are no negative indicators then the tableau is already considered final and the solution is already evident. The pivot row is the row with the smallest non-negative ratio (quotient). The pivot element is the number that sits at the intersection of the column with the most negative indictor (pivot column) and the row with the smallest quotient (pivot row). The example below is from â€Å"The Simplex Method† (n.d. web). This scenario was based on three different products ( s , t, u) and three different machines required to make those products. Note all calculations are done from the basic solution that x, y, and z, (number of units per product) are all zero. The original numbers used and the full calculation can be found in the reference section. In this first set of calculations the pivot column is in blue, the pivot row is in yellow and the pivot element is in green. The pivot element is found by first selecting the pivot column (the one with the most negative indicator) – in this example it is column 1 with -6. Then the constant on the right of the bar needs to be divided by the corresponding non-zero element in the pivot column and this will give you the smallest quotient (pivot row) and the intersection of these two (row and column) will give you the pivot

Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Interview - Essay Example I feel I need a PhD to enable me contribute to society in an expanded capacity owing to the immense knowledge I will have acquired. Should you send an American teacher to tech here in Saudi Arabia, I would be more than willing to help him understand the nutrition situation in the country, and the best way to pass his knowledge, and how to overcome cultural and environmental barriers in his work. In the course of my teaching at the university, I have interacted with great minds ready to make Saudi Arabia literate as far as nutrition is concerned. Upon their graduation, I am confident these young men and women have taken up this role in various capacities. We have also held a number of seminars and workshops to educate both the university and the community on nutrition. I believe a good classroom is one that incorporates both the peer-to-peer group and instructor-led formats. Such a classroom should embrace the use information technology, such as laptop computers among other gadgets in the dissemination of knowledge. I would not have any problem in regard to the practice in doctoral studies, where the student does not just receive information from the teacher. This is because I believe education is a two-way process where both the instructor and the student play their individual roles. In any case I would prefer a more student-centered learning system to an instructor-centered

The Lament for Ignacio Sanchez Mejias Essay Example for Free

The Lament for Ignacio Sanchez Mejias Essay Just like Helen Keller who attempted to attain the summit of her life through her incessant perseverance, I have also been doing my best efforts to achieve constant self-improvement and to work toward my maximum self-actualization. Both Helen Keller and I share one thing in common, that is, we adhere to the same spirit of perseverance and self-perfection. Nevertheless, there is one essential difference. What Helen Keller was trying to do was to overcome her physical predicaments and constraints so that she could behave and do things like a normal person. Being a normal person, I would like to tap my potential to the fullest possible extent so that I can achieve academic and professional excellence necessary for becoming an elite of the emerging young generation. The rapidly growing Chinese economy seems to be providing us with an unprecedented opportunity to our personal fulfillment. Under such circumstances, what we should do is to become fully prepared to embark on our journey of life, to venture into deep waters. As a matter of fact, I have already been making some of the most important preparations for my ambitious undertaking in the future. I completed my undergraduate education from 1998 to 2002 in the specialty of marketing at the Business Administration Department of Institute of XX. Although the Institute is by no means the most prestigious one in China, I have been one of the best students in this Institute. Drawing inspirations from Einstein’s assertion that diligence accounts for 99% of a person’s success, I have endeavored to prove this doctrine through my concrete action. At the very outset of my undergraduate program, I decided that I must make maximum use of all the educational resources available to improve and perfect my knowledge. By the time I graduated, I proved that my undergraduate life was a very rewarding one, embodied in my satisfactory academic performance, important extracurricular activities, a spate of honors and awards, well-developed personal qualities, and recruitment by my Alma Mater. As part of my personal development, my undergraduate career was characterized by constant improvement in academic performance. By the time I became a junior, I was ranked top three in my class. My diligence, sound analytical ability and strong interest in my chosen specialty, all those factors contributed to my sustained scholastic success. Marketing is a subject that encompasses knowledge in economics, management, psychology and other disciplines. This interdisciplinary nature of marketing, plus the challenges of creative thinking that it poses to its learner, helped to strengthen my interest in it as I delved deeper into this subject. As a result, I managed to achieve quite satisfactory scores in all the core courses—Business Psychology, Marketing, International Marketing, Modern Enterprise Management, Public Relations, Market Survey and Prediction, etc. Meanwhile, benefiting from the systematic and rigorous training in economics and management, I have considerably enhanced my analytical skills, which gradually permitted me to grasp the essence of the matter amidst apparently complicated business issues. I also started to reflect on some basis but specific problems in our economy, such as â€Å"Why none of Chinese enterprises have so far failed to enter the world’s top 500? † During my undergraduate program, my academic commitment did not in the least affect my extensive extracurricular involvements. On the contrary, those involvements served to develop my management capacity, interpersonal communication and teamwork. I was a journalist of our Institute’s Journalism Association, reporting on major campus events. I was the chief debater of our Department’s Debate Team and by working closely with my tem members, we won the first prize in our Institute for two consecutive years. My other extracurricular positions included assistant director of the Study Department of the Students Union, director of the Social Practice Department of the Institute’s Students Union, and a member of the Institute’s Students Committee. One thing that should be stressed is that, as director of the Social Practice Department, I successfully launched the final match of Miss Network in XX Province, which was part of XX The match, designed to popularize Internet knowledge and show the charm of the learned women students, produced quite a local sensation. As the main planner of the event, I met and overcame major challenges. I believe I will derive lifelong benefit from this experience. To be engaged in high-level business management has always been my professional objective. As far as I am concerned, this challenging profession is what I am most interested in, one which can allow me to apply my knowledge and expertise to face challenges. With China’s reform toward the market economy, a large number of big enterprises have been created, but over the past two decades, no Chinese enterprise can be found in the world’s top 500. An important factor is that we lack true entrepreneurs and effective ideas of modern strategic marketing and management. This situation calls for well-trained business administrators with international perspectives. An important purpose of your MBA education is to provide systematic theoretical support for solving various business problems while equipping future enterprise administrators with all the necessary managerial skills. In addition, I am deeply fascinated by your MBA program’s competitive and international character. In my proposed program, I will continue to focus on marketing, with special emphasis on studying the advanced marketing strategies and concepts of the world’s top enterprises. It is my conviction that, against the background of economic globalization, an international education can give me far more than the mere knowledge and skills of business administration. As a necessary foundation for my prospective MBA program, I will have accumulated two years of work experience (from 2002 to 2004). Upon completing my undergraduate program, due to my distinguished performance in academic, extracurricular and moral conduct, I was recruited by my Alma Mater to take up a teaching position as a teaching assistant while concomitantly serving as student councilor. For more than one year by now, I have been managing more than 700 students in an entire grade in XX. Although my responsibilities are not those typical of an enterprise, I have derived much pleasure of successful management in ensuring the smooth operation of student life and activities, in addition to promoting my sense of responsibility and managerial expertise. Admittedly, there are important differences between the management of students and the management of employees in an enterprise, I have consciously and creatively applied my knowledge of human resource management that I learned in my management courses. This makes me realize that many theories and approaches of commercial and industrial management can be equally effectively applied to the management of non-profit organizations to improve their operation efficiency. As one of the best-loved XX universities, XX University enjoys a very high prestige for its MBA education. What this University really attracts me is that your university attaches great importance to group research and small-class education whereby students are allowed to collaborate with senior professors to undertake various interesting projects. I believe that this highly interactive and competitive educational model will be very appropriate for me in that it can fully draw out my potential in business management and lay a firm foundation for me to become a business management elite in China. In my proposed study, I will stick to my usual way of self-development—constantly transcending my former self in pursuit of a life of sustained personal development. Just as what Helen Keller said: â€Å"The result of each attempt is a success, and along the ladder pieced together by each individual success, I will ultimately reach the grand altitudes in the deep of the azure clouds—the summit of my hope. †

Computers: Past, Present and Future :: Technology

Computers: Past, Present and Future Since the time when man first learned to express how they felt in written form, by drawing or writing, we have tried to communicate with other people. First, it was the prehistoric man with their conceptual cave drawings showing what animals to hunt, how to hunt them, and how to cook them. Soon that form took to hieroglyphics, in which the Egyptians would tell stories about battles they had won and about new pharaohs that had been born. This picture form soon turned in to words in which the Romans would communicate with one another. So it went, each generation progressed more and more, until it was the 20th century. In 1937 the electronic computer was born. Computers were in 1943 to break â€Å"the unbreakable† German Enigma codes. 1951 introduced the computer commercially. However, it wasn’t until around 1976 when the Apple II was introduced and it was immediately adopted by high schools, colleges, and homes. This was the first time that people from all over really had an opportunity to use a computer. Since that time micro processing chips have been made, the World Wide Web has been invented and in 1996 more than one out of every three people have a computer in their home, and two out of every three have one at the office. Today, computers influence all lifestyles, and all different types of businesses. They have become an essential part of everyday life, from chatting, to e-mail, to commerce, to gaming. Almost every person in the United States has had some use on the computer. Since the technology age began, computers have become a mainstay in American and world society as much as the telephone, the automobile, and the television. Almost every device has some type of computer in it. Whether it is a cell phone, a calculator, or a vending machine. Even things that we take for granted most cars since the 1980’s have a computer in it or a pacemaker. All of the advancements in computers and technology have led up to the 21st century in which â€Å"the greatest advances in computer technology will occur†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Mainly in areas such as â€Å"hardware, software, communications and networks, mobile and wireless connectivity, and robotics.† All lifestyles benefit from the use of computers.

Nursing Research

?INTRODUCTION Nursing research is a systematic process by which nurses may used to confirm or refine existing knowledge and to explore new ideas about issues related to nursing practice (Borbasi, Jackson, & Langford, 2008). It falls largely into two areas, namely: Qualitative research and Quantitative research whereby qualitative research is based on the model of phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography and examines the experience of those receiving or delivering nursing care. The research methods most commonly used in qualitative research are interviews, case studies, and ethnography. On the other hand, quantitative research is based in the paradigm of logical positivism and is focused upon outcomes for clients that are measurable, generally using statistics gathered from a survey questionnaire method of research (Parahoo, 1997). The objective of this nursing research assignment is to distinguish the identified three pieces of nursing research with a common issue that is relevant to my current clinical experience. The five phases of the research process will be outlined and discussed the findings of the researchers by providing examples from each study. For purposes of this assignment, the research topic which I want to examine is poor hygiene and failure to follow infection control practices, contributing to the spread of nosocomial infections especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a clinical setting. The said topic was chosen because it has been observed during my clinical experience, that most of the time doctors, nurses, and other health professionals does not adhere to the implementation of existing guidelines pertinent to infection prevention and control practices maybe due to excessive workload and rapid turnover interval of patients but nonetheless, that is not an excuse. Further, the emergence of antibiotic resistance is primarily due to excessive and often unnecessary use of antibiotics to patients (Gould, 2008). Risk factor for the spread of resistant bacteria in hospitals can be summarized as over-crowding and lapses in hygiene or poor infection control practices (Gopal Rao, 1998). The three identified nursing research articles relates to my current clinical experience wherein a common problem was determined specifically enumerating the factors for the spread of healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) such as MRSA and providing some remedies to prevent and control the transmission of such infections. Problems identified in relation to my clinical experience. Based on previous studies it was ascertained that the mode of transmission of micro -organisms in a healthcare setting include direct and indirect contact, inhalation or droplet, waterborne or body fluid route, foodborne, and sexual activity (Gould, 2008). The problems related to my clinical experience are poor hygiene and non-adherence to infection control guidelines by nursing staff and other health professionals. Hence, it appears that infection control was not properly managed in a healthcare setting. In my clinical experience it was observed that most of the doctors and nurses do not wear disposable gloves and disposable apron during their visit to different patients especially for those patients who are in isolation room afflicted with different kinds of disease. This observation can be illustrated when a patient was admitted in the ward and lodged in an isolation room because the patient is MRSA positive. The doctor enter into the patient’s room to do some medical assessment and most of the time doctor tend to forget to wear protective gear before conducted clinical assessments, despite the notice or sign posted in front of the patient’s room being an isolated area. Upon conducting the medical assessment on a patient who is MRSA positive, the doctor did not wash his hands instead continued his job by conducting medical check up on the other patients who are not in isolation area. In addition, nurses also tend to forget to follow infection control ractices. They failed to understand the chain of infection control, for example an E. coli, which is considered as an infection agent found in the large intestine of human form the greater part of the normal intestinal flora. Its port of exit is via faeces. The nurse removed the contaminated linen from the bed. The E. coli contaminated the hands of the nurse who then provided care to another patient without hand washing. The sec ond patient has a foley catheter. The nurse manipulated the catheter tubing, the E. oli in the nurse’s hands contaminated the catheter tubing and ascending to the patient’s urinary tract and then into the bladder. The susceptible host, who is the second patient with the foley catheter is an elderly and had a chronic illness necessitating complete bed rest. The foley catheter contaminated by the E. coli organism provided a direct route into the urinary bladder causing the transmission of the infection from one patient to another. The most common mode of transmission of infection is by direct contact, often on the hands of health workers. This is the way that most HCAIs are spread and explains why hand washing is emphasized as the most important way of breaking the chain of infection (Gould, 2008). Moreover, nurses were observed roaming around in the ward corridor wearing the disposable gloves and disposable gowns after providing nursing care to patients who are in isolation room. These actuations probe that nurses should have continuing education on the implementation of infection control practices to avoid cross-infection and transmission of contagious diseases among patients. The essence of public health is taking sensible measures to prevent problems in the future. Good infection control in primary care has the potential to prevent grave consequences for patients. Nurses in primary care should play a crucial role in ensuring cleanliness, infection control practices and adhere to guidelines in this important area (Gould, 2008). Five phases of the research process The nursing research process contains an orderly series of phases or steps that outline the key points of research study. Research article has both qualitative and quantitative research method to develop and answer the issues pertinent to the specific topic (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). The first phase of nursing research is to conceive the study by identifying the issue or problem to be studied relevant to the interest of the researcher that will include the goal of the study, review of literature, development of theoretical framework, and the formulation of research hypothesis (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). Literature review serves to put the current study into the context of what is already known about the phenomenon (Parahoo, 1997). The three identified nursing research were conceived due to the following problems: In article one entitled Plastic apron wear during direct patient care, the researchers stated the problem as inconsistent practice in apron use by nurses in healthcare setting (Candlin & Stark, 2005). In this study an expansion of the general themes and concentration of the main report is given and the reader is able to make choice about the relevance of the article for the purpose. The identified problem in article two entitled controlling the risk of MRSA infection: screening and isolating patients stated that there is a need to minimize the spread of antibiotic resistant infection through screening and isolating patients (Bissett, 2005). For article three, entitled bed occupancy, turnover interval and MRSA rates in Northern Ireland, the researchers identified the problem as the increasing rate of MRSA infection in the healthcare setting. Relative thereto, the aim of the study is to ascertain the relationship between bed percentage occupancy and MRSA patient episode rates (Cunningham, kernohan & Rush, 2006). In the review of literature, the researchers of the three articles analyses the literatures from different sources such as Cinahl, Medline and Pubmed (Bissett, 2005), to help in the development of theoretical framework to explain or predict study outcomes (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). In article three the researchers develop theoretical framework to explain their findings by using the collected data from different sources. The second phase of nursing research is to design the study whereby the methodology for the conduct of research was identified (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). It includes the process of data collection, whereby article three is an example of quantitative method of research wherein the researchers gathered the needed data from annual reports and hospital statistics. In article one, the researchers collected the information and data needed in their study from 15 journal articles which are relevant to their topic that contribute to the credibility of the outcome of the study and this is a representation of a qualitative method of research as the researchers analyses previous case studies relevant to their topic (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Further, article two was identified as a quantitative study and clearly outlined the research question to be answered (Bissett, 2005). The conduct of the study is the third phase of nursing research and ethics is part of phase 3 of the nursing process. It is an important part of nursing research and it is an area in which the health professional is involved daily particularly in providing care to patients. Issues relating to the study, design, recruitment of participants, feedback and data collection methods are subject to scrutiny of a departmental ethics committee and approval should be obtained. Consent was secured from the target participants by the researchers in support to their study (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). Phase 3 includes the actual data collection pertinent to the study. In article one, the researchers evaluated and analyses the information and data gathered from the documents. They separated the data into three categories in order to accurately determine and interpret their findings (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Records show that the researchers of the three identified nursing research sought the approval of an institutional ethics committee prior to the conduct of their respective studies. However, such approval was not acknowledged in the content of their studies. The three nursing research studies encountered some limitations, which affect the validity of the outcome of their studies. For example, in article one and three, the researchers identified their method of data analysis as their limitation in the conduct of their studies. Candlin & Stark (2005) stressed that the documentary analysis in their study have limited available data, which are incomplete, inaccurate and has inherent biases, while the researcher in article two explained that by using survey questionnaire in the data collection does not guarantee that the target participants will provide honest and accurate answers to the questions (Bissett, 205). The analysis of the study, which includes the interpretation of the gathered data is the fourth phase of the nursing research process. The findings in article two, reveal that nursing staff doesn’t understand the proper implementation of infection control practices and the potential transmission of infections from one patient to another (Candlin & Stark, 2005). The findings in article one and three as presented were brief, concise and accurate which are easy to understand. In article three, the researchers presented the results of the study in tables and graphs, which were used as reference to explain the findings of the study. The phase five of nursing research is use the study that completes the research process and ensures that results or findings of the study are shared with the target consumers (Borbasi, et al. 2008). This phase includes recommendations whether further study is needed to strengthen the findings of the study and conclusions, which are being used as reference to reinforce the outcome of the research study. It may include the evaluation of the study and a summary of the findings together with the relevance and importance of the study in nursing practice. The researchers of the three articles presented their respective conclusions in a brief and concise manner. The researchers in article one outlined their conclusion as brief as possible and stated the implication of the study in relation to nursing practice. Nurses should adhere to the existing policies and guidelines pertinent to infection control practices such as use of disposable apron during direct patient care and nurses should have understanding on the said policies, to promote good practice and reduce risk of cross-infection, an area that cannot be ignored (Candlin & Stark, 2005). The researcher in article two emphasized that health worker should follow and observe the existing guidelines on infection control and MRSA screening should be done to all patients who are subject for admission to minimize the risk of MRSA infections (Bissett, 2005). Finally, in article three, as part of the findings of the study, the researchers were able to establish the link between high bed occupancy, patient turnovers interval and MRSA rates considering that nurses do not have enough time to implement effective infection control practices (Cunningham, Kernohan & Rush, 2006). Influence of the research study to the identified issue The study conducted in article one was able to identify the factors that influence the nurses to use plastic apron when providing direct patient care such as nurses’ uniforms are not considered as protective clothing. It promotes good practice for health workers as plastic apron protect themselves and other people in a healthcare setting from contagious diseases and other infections. The use of plastic apron will reduce the risk of cross-contamination and prevent the spread of micro-organisms. This research study could influence the identified problem by calling the attention of the health service managers to ensure that a policy from apron use is implemented. The management shall make sure that nurses and other health professionals will have adequate access to disposable apron to protect themselves from contamination, and to guarantee the safety of the patients and staff member in a healthcare setting (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Article two is considered as an educational in nursing practice. It provides information and data that described nosocomial infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria such as MRSA (Bissett, 2005). Likewise, the study enumerated some infection control strategy that can be applied in my clinical experience such as surveillance of infection, education and training production, review and dissemination of written policies and guidelines, etc. that will provide a safe environment in the clinical setting by protecting the clients and other staff members. These infection control strategies will ensure safe and good nursing practice that will lead to proper management of infection control practices. It is interesting to note in this article, the findings of the researchers would serve as reference in combating healthcare-associated infections. It would educate the nursing staff as far as infection control practices that form part as an update of the existing policies and guidelines. It reminds the nurses and other healthcare workers of the grave consequences for patients if there will be an outbreak of the infection in the clinical setting. Likewise, the author of the article suggested some infection control strategies that will be of help in reducing the risk of cross-contamination and preventing the spread or transmission of infections. Bissett (2005) stressed that isolation of patient who is MRSA positive is the most ideal precautionary measure to prevent the spread of infections coupled with hygiene and cleanliness within the hospital premises. The data presented in article three are prevalent in my clinical experience and the findings of the study is evident in every healthcare setting that when there is a rapid turnover interval of patients meaning admission of patients is greater than the discharge it will caused high bed occupancy resulting to increase in the MRSA rate due to overcrowding and work overload of nurses and other healthcare workers in a hospital setting. Such limitations will put the nurses and medical staff working under pressure and may tend to forget to follow hygiene procedures and infection control practices (Wenzel, 1993). This article may influence the identified problem in my clinical experience by introducing equitable distribution of workload among nurses and medical staff that will include the number of patients to be taken care of by each nurse or medical staff. In this case, nurses could concentrate on the activities and care plan to be introduced to the patient including the promotion of proper hygiene and observance of infection control practices. Conclusion In conclusion, the main recommendations arising from this study suggest that nurses must be knowledgeable to the current policies and guidelines relative to proper hygiene and infection control practices. This recommendation relates to the competencies of nurses to promote an environment that enables client safety, independence, quality of life, and health. Likewise, nurses must also be responsible for their own professional development (Weber & Kelly, 2003). All qualified nurses must develop competency critical evaluation of research. According to Borbasi, et. al. (2008), it must be evident that nursing care provided to clients if possible, is based on quality research – based evidence. Assessing critical evaluation skills takes time and practice. Working along with other nurses (senior staff) can make the process more effective. This will ensure that the highest possible standard for evidence-based practice is provided for patients. Relative to the three pieces of nursing research, it appears that poor hygiene and failure to follow infection control practices by nurses and other healthcare workers are contributory to rapid transmission of nosocomial infections such as MRSA in a clinical setting (Bissett, 2005). To effectively address this issue existing policies and guidelines on infection control and prevention should be updated and strictly implemented in a clinical setting. An audit tool to monitor compliance of nurses and other health professionals to the said guidelines and policies should be initiated as part of the strategies on how to minimize if cannot eradicate the spread of infections. This study can be considered as a wake up call for nurses, doctors, and other healthcare workers for them to religiously observe proper hygiene within the hospital setting and strictly follow the standards provided by the government to stop the spread of infections in a clinical setting as well as in community setting through effective information, and education campaign. REFERENCES Bissett, L. (2005). Controlling the risk of MRSA infection: screening and isolating patients. British journal of Nursing, 14 (7), 396-390. Borbasi, S. , Jackson, D. , & Langford, R. (2008). Navigating the maze of nursing research 2e: An interactive learning adventure. Sydney, Australia: Elsevier Mosby. Candlin, J. , Stark, S. (2005). Plastic apron wear during direct patient care. Nursing Standard. 20, (2), 41-46. Cunningham, J. , Kernohan, W. , & Rush, T. (2006). Bed occupancy, turnover internal and MRSA rates in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Nursing, 15 (6), 324-328. Gopal Rao, G. (1998). Risk factors for the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Department of Microbiology, University Hospital: Lewisham, London Gould, D. (2008). Isolation precaution to prevent the spread of contagious diseases. Nursing Standard. 23, (22), 47-55. Parahoo, K. (1997). Nursing Research: Principles, processes and issues. Macmillan. ISB No. 337-69918-1. Weber, J. & Kelly, J. , (2003). Health assessment in nursing. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Wenzel, RP. (1993). Prevention and control of nosocomial infections, (2nd ed. ). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Nursing Research ?INTRODUCTION Nursing research is a systematic process by which nurses may used to confirm or refine existing knowledge and to explore new ideas about issues related to nursing practice (Borbasi, Jackson, & Langford, 2008). It falls largely into two areas, namely: Qualitative research and Quantitative research whereby qualitative research is based on the model of phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography and examines the experience of those receiving or delivering nursing care. The research methods most commonly used in qualitative research are interviews, case studies, and ethnography. On the other hand, quantitative research is based in the paradigm of logical positivism and is focused upon outcomes for clients that are measurable, generally using statistics gathered from a survey questionnaire method of research (Parahoo, 1997). The objective of this nursing research assignment is to distinguish the identified three pieces of nursing research with a common issue that is relevant to my current clinical experience. The five phases of the research process will be outlined and discussed the findings of the researchers by providing examples from each study. For purposes of this assignment, the research topic which I want to examine is poor hygiene and failure to follow infection control practices, contributing to the spread of nosocomial infections especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a clinical setting. The said topic was chosen because it has been observed during my clinical experience, that most of the time doctors, nurses, and other health professionals does not adhere to the implementation of existing guidelines pertinent to infection prevention and control practices maybe due to excessive workload and rapid turnover interval of patients but nonetheless, that is not an excuse. Further, the emergence of antibiotic resistance is primarily due to excessive and often unnecessary use of antibiotics to patients (Gould, 2008). Risk factor for the spread of resistant bacteria in hospitals can be summarized as over-crowding and lapses in hygiene or poor infection control practices (Gopal Rao, 1998). The three identified nursing research articles relates to my current clinical experience wherein a common problem was determined specifically enumerating the factors for the spread of healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) such as MRSA and providing some remedies to prevent and control the transmission of such infections. Problems identified in relation to my clinical experience. Based on previous studies it was ascertained that the mode of transmission of micro -organisms in a healthcare setting include direct and indirect contact, inhalation or droplet, waterborne or body fluid route, foodborne, and sexual activity (Gould, 2008). The problems related to my clinical experience are poor hygiene and non-adherence to infection control guidelines by nursing staff and other health professionals. Hence, it appears that infection control was not properly managed in a healthcare setting. In my clinical experience it was observed that most of the doctors and nurses do not wear disposable gloves and disposable apron during their visit to different patients especially for those patients who are in isolation room afflicted with different kinds of disease. This observation can be illustrated when a patient was admitted in the ward and lodged in an isolation room because the patient is MRSA positive. The doctor enter into the patient’s room to do some medical assessment and most of the time doctor tend to forget to wear protective gear before conducted clinical assessments, despite the notice or sign posted in front of the patient’s room being an isolated area. Upon conducting the medical assessment on a patient who is MRSA positive, the doctor did not wash his hands instead continued his job by conducting medical check up on the other patients who are not in isolation area. In addition, nurses also tend to forget to follow infection control ractices. They failed to understand the chain of infection control, for example an E. coli, which is considered as an infection agent found in the large intestine of human form the greater part of the normal intestinal flora. Its port of exit is via faeces. The nurse removed the contaminated linen from the bed. The E. coli contaminated the hands of the nurse who then provided care to another patient without hand washing. The sec ond patient has a foley catheter. The nurse manipulated the catheter tubing, the E. oli in the nurse’s hands contaminated the catheter tubing and ascending to the patient’s urinary tract and then into the bladder. The susceptible host, who is the second patient with the foley catheter is an elderly and had a chronic illness necessitating complete bed rest. The foley catheter contaminated by the E. coli organism provided a direct route into the urinary bladder causing the transmission of the infection from one patient to another. The most common mode of transmission of infection is by direct contact, often on the hands of health workers. This is the way that most HCAIs are spread and explains why hand washing is emphasized as the most important way of breaking the chain of infection (Gould, 2008). Moreover, nurses were observed roaming around in the ward corridor wearing the disposable gloves and disposable gowns after providing nursing care to patients who are in isolation room. These actuations probe that nurses should have continuing education on the implementation of infection control practices to avoid cross-infection and transmission of contagious diseases among patients. The essence of public health is taking sensible measures to prevent problems in the future. Good infection control in primary care has the potential to prevent grave consequences for patients. Nurses in primary care should play a crucial role in ensuring cleanliness, infection control practices and adhere to guidelines in this important area (Gould, 2008). Five phases of the research process The nursing research process contains an orderly series of phases or steps that outline the key points of research study. Research article has both qualitative and quantitative research method to develop and answer the issues pertinent to the specific topic (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). The first phase of nursing research is to conceive the study by identifying the issue or problem to be studied relevant to the interest of the researcher that will include the goal of the study, review of literature, development of theoretical framework, and the formulation of research hypothesis (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). Literature review serves to put the current study into the context of what is already known about the phenomenon (Parahoo, 1997). The three identified nursing research were conceived due to the following problems: In article one entitled Plastic apron wear during direct patient care, the researchers stated the problem as inconsistent practice in apron use by nurses in healthcare setting (Candlin & Stark, 2005). In this study an expansion of the general themes and concentration of the main report is given and the reader is able to make choice about the relevance of the article for the purpose. The identified problem in article two entitled controlling the risk of MRSA infection: screening and isolating patients stated that there is a need to minimize the spread of antibiotic resistant infection through screening and isolating patients (Bissett, 2005). For article three, entitled bed occupancy, turnover interval and MRSA rates in Northern Ireland, the researchers identified the problem as the increasing rate of MRSA infection in the healthcare setting. Relative thereto, the aim of the study is to ascertain the relationship between bed percentage occupancy and MRSA patient episode rates (Cunningham, kernohan & Rush, 2006). In the review of literature, the researchers of the three articles analyses the literatures from different sources such as Cinahl, Medline and Pubmed (Bissett, 2005), to help in the development of theoretical framework to explain or predict study outcomes (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). In article three the researchers develop theoretical framework to explain their findings by using the collected data from different sources. The second phase of nursing research is to design the study whereby the methodology for the conduct of research was identified (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). It includes the process of data collection, whereby article three is an example of quantitative method of research wherein the researchers gathered the needed data from annual reports and hospital statistics. In article one, the researchers collected the information and data needed in their study from 15 journal articles which are relevant to their topic that contribute to the credibility of the outcome of the study and this is a representation of a qualitative method of research as the researchers analyses previous case studies relevant to their topic (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Further, article two was identified as a quantitative study and clearly outlined the research question to be answered (Bissett, 2005). The conduct of the study is the third phase of nursing research and ethics is part of phase 3 of the nursing process. It is an important part of nursing research and it is an area in which the health professional is involved daily particularly in providing care to patients. Issues relating to the study, design, recruitment of participants, feedback and data collection methods are subject to scrutiny of a departmental ethics committee and approval should be obtained. Consent was secured from the target participants by the researchers in support to their study (Borbasi, et al. , 2008). Phase 3 includes the actual data collection pertinent to the study. In article one, the researchers evaluated and analyses the information and data gathered from the documents. They separated the data into three categories in order to accurately determine and interpret their findings (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Records show that the researchers of the three identified nursing research sought the approval of an institutional ethics committee prior to the conduct of their respective studies. However, such approval was not acknowledged in the content of their studies. The three nursing research studies encountered some limitations, which affect the validity of the outcome of their studies. For example, in article one and three, the researchers identified their method of data analysis as their limitation in the conduct of their studies. Candlin & Stark (2005) stressed that the documentary analysis in their study have limited available data, which are incomplete, inaccurate and has inherent biases, while the researcher in article two explained that by using survey questionnaire in the data collection does not guarantee that the target participants will provide honest and accurate answers to the questions (Bissett, 205). The analysis of the study, which includes the interpretation of the gathered data is the fourth phase of the nursing research process. The findings in article two, reveal that nursing staff doesn’t understand the proper implementation of infection control practices and the potential transmission of infections from one patient to another (Candlin & Stark, 2005). The findings in article one and three as presented were brief, concise and accurate which are easy to understand. In article three, the researchers presented the results of the study in tables and graphs, which were used as reference to explain the findings of the study. The phase five of nursing research is use the study that completes the research process and ensures that results or findings of the study are shared with the target consumers (Borbasi, et al. 2008). This phase includes recommendations whether further study is needed to strengthen the findings of the study and conclusions, which are being used as reference to reinforce the outcome of the research study. It may include the evaluation of the study and a summary of the findings together with the relevance and importance of the study in nursing practice. The researchers of the three articles presented their respective conclusions in a brief and concise manner. The researchers in article one outlined their conclusion as brief as possible and stated the implication of the study in relation to nursing practice. Nurses should adhere to the existing policies and guidelines pertinent to infection control practices such as use of disposable apron during direct patient care and nurses should have understanding on the said policies, to promote good practice and reduce risk of cross-infection, an area that cannot be ignored (Candlin & Stark, 2005). The researcher in article two emphasized that health worker should follow and observe the existing guidelines on infection control and MRSA screening should be done to all patients who are subject for admission to minimize the risk of MRSA infections (Bissett, 2005). Finally, in article three, as part of the findings of the study, the researchers were able to establish the link between high bed occupancy, patient turnovers interval and MRSA rates considering that nurses do not have enough time to implement effective infection control practices (Cunningham, Kernohan & Rush, 2006). Influence of the research study to the identified issue The study conducted in article one was able to identify the factors that influence the nurses to use plastic apron when providing direct patient care such as nurses’ uniforms are not considered as protective clothing. It promotes good practice for health workers as plastic apron protect themselves and other people in a healthcare setting from contagious diseases and other infections. The use of plastic apron will reduce the risk of cross-contamination and prevent the spread of micro-organisms. This research study could influence the identified problem by calling the attention of the health service managers to ensure that a policy from apron use is implemented. The management shall make sure that nurses and other health professionals will have adequate access to disposable apron to protect themselves from contamination, and to guarantee the safety of the patients and staff member in a healthcare setting (Candlin & Stark, 2005). Article two is considered as an educational in nursing practice. It provides information and data that described nosocomial infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria such as MRSA (Bissett, 2005). Likewise, the study enumerated some infection control strategy that can be applied in my clinical experience such as surveillance of infection, education and training production, review and dissemination of written policies and guidelines, etc. that will provide a safe environment in the clinical setting by protecting the clients and other staff members. These infection control strategies will ensure safe and good nursing practice that will lead to proper management of infection control practices. It is interesting to note in this article, the findings of the researchers would serve as reference in combating healthcare-associated infections. It would educate the nursing staff as far as infection control practices that form part as an update of the existing policies and guidelines. It reminds the nurses and other healthcare workers of the grave consequences for patients if there will be an outbreak of the infection in the clinical setting. Likewise, the author of the article suggested some infection control strategies that will be of help in reducing the risk of cross-contamination and preventing the spread or transmission of infections. Bissett (2005) stressed that isolation of patient who is MRSA positive is the most ideal precautionary measure to prevent the spread of infections coupled with hygiene and cleanliness within the hospital premises. The data presented in article three are prevalent in my clinical experience and the findings of the study is evident in every healthcare setting that when there is a rapid turnover interval of patients meaning admission of patients is greater than the discharge it will caused high bed occupancy resulting to increase in the MRSA rate due to overcrowding and work overload of nurses and other healthcare workers in a hospital setting. Such limitations will put the nurses and medical staff working under pressure and may tend to forget to follow hygiene procedures and infection control practices (Wenzel, 1993). This article may influence the identified problem in my clinical experience by introducing equitable distribution of workload among nurses and medical staff that will include the number of patients to be taken care of by each nurse or medical staff. In this case, nurses could concentrate on the activities and care plan to be introduced to the patient including the promotion of proper hygiene and observance of infection control practices. Conclusion In conclusion, the main recommendations arising from this study suggest that nurses must be knowledgeable to the current policies and guidelines relative to proper hygiene and infection control practices. This recommendation relates to the competencies of nurses to promote an environment that enables client safety, independence, quality of life, and health. Likewise, nurses must also be responsible for their own professional development (Weber & Kelly, 2003). All qualified nurses must develop competency critical evaluation of research. According to Borbasi, et. al. (2008), it must be evident that nursing care provided to clients if possible, is based on quality research – based evidence. Assessing critical evaluation skills takes time and practice. Working along with other nurses (senior staff) can make the process more effective. This will ensure that the highest possible standard for evidence-based practice is provided for patients. Relative to the three pieces of nursing research, it appears that poor hygiene and failure to follow infection control practices by nurses and other healthcare workers are contributory to rapid transmission of nosocomial infections such as MRSA in a clinical setting (Bissett, 2005). To effectively address this issue existing policies and guidelines on infection control and prevention should be updated and strictly implemented in a clinical setting. An audit tool to monitor compliance of nurses and other health professionals to the said guidelines and policies should be initiated as part of the strategies on how to minimize if cannot eradicate the spread of infections. This study can be considered as a wake up call for nurses, doctors, and other healthcare workers for them to religiously observe proper hygiene within the hospital setting and strictly follow the standards provided by the government to stop the spread of infections in a clinical setting as well as in community setting through effective information, and education campaign. REFERENCES Bissett, L. (2005). Controlling the risk of MRSA infection: screening and isolating patients. British journal of Nursing, 14 (7), 396-390. Borbasi, S. , Jackson, D. , & Langford, R. (2008). Navigating the maze of nursing research 2e: An interactive learning adventure. Sydney, Australia: Elsevier Mosby. Candlin, J. , Stark, S. (2005). Plastic apron wear during direct patient care. Nursing Standard. 20, (2), 41-46. Cunningham, J. , Kernohan, W. , & Rush, T. (2006). Bed occupancy, turnover internal and MRSA rates in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Nursing, 15 (6), 324-328. Gopal Rao, G. (1998). Risk factors for the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Department of Microbiology, University Hospital: Lewisham, London Gould, D. (2008). Isolation precaution to prevent the spread of contagious diseases. Nursing Standard. 23, (22), 47-55. Parahoo, K. (1997). Nursing Research: Principles, processes and issues. Macmillan. ISB No. 337-69918-1. Weber, J. & Kelly, J. , (2003). Health assessment in nursing. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Wenzel, RP. (1993). Prevention and control of nosocomial infections, (2nd ed. ). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

PE in school curriculum

Nowadays, sport plays an important role in people life-style. School also put PEE in a curriculum to make children like to play sports and know the way of being health, though some people does not want school to have PEE class because some sports are quite dangerous and It makes students quarrel when they do not satisfy about the scores. In my opinion, I think it is important for students to study PEE because they would recognize the conformity, get an opportunity, and learn to be healthy. The first reason is to recognize the conformity.PEE class provides many kinds of sport that students could play as team and couple. Playing sports as a team would let students know the word â€Å"team work† which Is an Important thing to make them succeed and win. Moreover, they would not be a self-centre people because they learn to plan a game with group, play In a rule, and listen to other opinions. The second reason Is giving an opportunity for students. Some students are not good In aca demic subjects such as Mathematics, but they might good In playing ports.If school does not have PEE class to show their talents, they would feel fail because they think that they are good with nothing then they do not want to go to school. Moreover, Students might find out what do they belong and school can find an athlete from PEE class because students will show their outstanding abilities. On the other hand, it also gives a chance for students who do not have a free time to play sport. The final reason is being healthy. In a PEE class, the teachers teach their students doth of knowledge and performing that students would learn to eat in a healthy way and play sports.In constant, they know how much nutrients and calories should consume in a day and how often should they play sports because eating too much sweets, fats, and carbohydrates is a cause of diseases. Furthermore, students also relieve from seriousness when they are playing a sport. In summary, sports are necessary for s tudents even they might have some disadvantage. PEE might not provide a dangerous sport in a program and teacher just prepare the safety equipment enough for students in every time when they have a class.Therefore, School curriculum should have a PEE class in order to make students reasonable, fit, firm, and far from disease. PEE in school curriculum By tracking students know the word â€Å"team work† which is an important thing to make them learn to plan a game with group, play in a rule, and listen to other opinions. The second reason is giving an opportunity for students. Some students are not good in academic subjects such as Mathematics, but they might good in playing.

Jay Leno Book Review essays

Jay Leno Book Review essays The book I read was "Leading With My Chin". The author is Bill Zehme. I enjoyed reading this book because of its excellent detail. I would definitely recommend this book to someone that is a Jay Leno fan or like to laugh a lot. This book talked about Jays past and all of the things he has accomplished in his long and fun filled life. It explained all the things that he did right and all the things that he did wrong. It talked about things that he would never say on television like his real name. I learned some things about him that I never knew. It also talked about his family and how he met his wife Mavi. He also talked about kids. And he said that he doesn't have any because he can't give them any attention. My cousin also has read half of the book and thoroughly enjoyed what he has read so far, and he is very anxious to finish the book. If I had to rate this book out of ten I would give it a nine because of its excellent details and humor. ...

Obsidian - Volcanic Glass Prized for Stone Tool Making

Obsidian - Volcanic Glass Prized for Stone Tool Making The volcanic glass called obsidian was highly prized in prehistory where ever it was found. The glassy material comes in a range of colors from black to green to bright orange, and it is found everywhere rhyolite-rich volcanic deposits are found. Most obsidian is a deep rich black, but, for example, pachuca obsidian, from a source in Hidalgo and distributed throughout Mesoamerica during the Aztec period, is a translucent green color with a golden yellow sheen to it. Pico de Orizaba, from a source in southeastern Puebla is almost completely colorless. Obsidian Qualities The qualities that made obsidian a favorite trade item are its shiny beauty, its easily worked fine texture, and the sharpness of its flaked edges. Archaeologists are fond of it because of obsidian hydration-a relatively secure (and relatively low cost) way to date the period an obsidian tool was last flaked. Sourcing obsidianthat is to say, discovering where the raw stone from a particular obsidian artifact came fromis typically conducted through trace element analysis. Although obsidian is always made up of volcanic rhyolite, each deposit has slightly different amounts of trace elements in it. Scholars identify the chemical fingerprint of each deposit through such methods as X-ray fluorescence or neutron activation analysis  and then compare that to what is found in an obsidian artifact. Alca Obsidian Alca is  a type of obsidian that is  solid and banded black, gray, maroon brown and bottled black maroon brown, that is found in volcanic deposits in the Andes mountains between 3700-5165 meters (12,140-16,945 feet) above sea level. The largest known concentrations of Alca are at the east rim of the Cotahuasi Canyon and in the Pucuncho basin. The Alca sources are among the most extensive sources of obsidian in South America; only the Laguna de Maule source in Chile and Argentina has comparable exposure.   Three types of Alca, Alca-1, Alca-5 and Alca-7, outcrop on the alluvial fans of the Pucuncho basin. These cannot be discerned with the naked eye, but they can be identified on the basis of geochemical characteristics, identified through ED-XRF and NAA (Rademaker et al. 2013). Stone tool workshops at the sources in the Pucuncho basin have been dated to the Terminal Pleistoceneand stone tools dated to the same 10,000-13,000 year range have been discovered at Quebrada Jaguay on the coast of Peru. Sources For information on dating obsidian ,  see the article on obsidian hydration. See the History of Glass Making, if thats what interests you. For more rock science on the substance, see the geology entry for obsidian. For the heck of it, try the Obsidian Trivia Quiz. Freter A. 1993. Obsidian-hydration dating: Its past, present, and future application in Mesoamerica. Ancient Mesoamerica 4:285-303. Graves MW, and Ladefoged TN. 1991. The disparity between radiocarbon and volcanic glass dates: New evidence from the island of Lanai, Hawaii. Archaeology in Oceania 26:70-77. Hatch JW, Michels JW, Stevenson CM, Scheetz BE, and Geidel RA. 1990. Hopewell obsidian studies: Behavioral implications of recent sourcing and dating research. American Antiquity 55(3):461-479. Hughes RE, Kay M, and Green TJ. 2002. Geochemical and Microwear Analysis of an Obsidian Artifact from the Brown Bluff Site (3WA10), Arkansas. Plains Anthropologist 46(179). Khalidi L, Oppenheimer C, Gratuze B, Boucetta S, Sanabani A, and al-Mosabi A. 2010. Obsidian sources in highland Yemen and their relevance to archaeological research in the Red Sea region. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(9):2332-2345. Kuzmin YV, Speakman RJ, Glascock MD, Popov VK, Grebennikov AV, Dikova MA, and Ptashinsky AV. 2008. Obsidian use at the Ushki Lake complex, Kamchatka Peninsula (Northeastern Siberia): implications for terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene human migrations in Beringia. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(8):2179-2187. Liritzis I, Diakostamatiou M, Stevenson C, Novak S, and Abdelrehim I. 2004. Dating of hydrated obsidian surfaces by SIMS-SS. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 261(1):51–60. Luglie C, Le Bourdonnec F-X, Poupeau G, Atzeni E, Dubernet S, Moretto P, and Serani L. 2006. Early Neolithic obsidians in Sardinia (Western Mediterranean): the Su Carroppu case. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(3):428-439. Millhauser JK, Rodrà ­guez-Alegrà ­a E, and Glascock MD. 2011. Testing the accuracy of portable X-ray fluorescence to study Aztec and Colonial obsidian supply at Xaltocan, Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(11):3141-3152. Moholy-Nagy H, and Nelson FW. 1990. New data on sources of obsidian artifacts from Tikal, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 1:71-80. Negash A, Shackley MS, and Alene M. 2006. Source provenance of obsidian artifacts from the Early Stone Age (ESA) site of Melka Konture, Ethiopia. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1647-1650. Peterson J, Mitchell DR, and Shackley MS. 1997. The social and economic contexts of lithic procureent: obsidian from classic-period Hohokam sites. American Antiquity 62(2):213-259. Rademaker K, Glascock MD, Kaiser B, Gibson D, Lux DR, and Yates MG. 2013. Multi-technique geochemical characterization of the Alca obsidian source, Peruvian Andes. Geology 41(7):779-782. Shackley MS. 1995. Sources of archaeological obsidian in the Greater American southwest: An update and quantitative analysis. American Antiquity 60(3):531-551. Spence MW. 1996. Commodity or gift: Teotihuacan obsidian in the Maya region. Latin American Antiquity 7(1):21-39. Stoltman JB, and Hughes RE. 2004. Obsidian in Early Woodland Contexts in the Upper Mississippi Valley. American Antiquity 69(4):751-760. Summerhayes GR. 2009. Obsidian network patterns in Melanesia: Sources, characterisation, and distribution. IPPA Bulletin 29:109-123. Also Known As: Volcanic glass Examples: Teotihuacan and Catal Hoyuk are just two of the sites where obsidian was clearly considered an important stone resource.